Diamonds! From the heart of the Earth, into the hearts of stars and at the heart of power! From the heads of kings, to the fingers of people.

While modern technology has definitely accelerated the discovery process, in most cases, excavating diamond rough is still no simple task. Each diamond deposit is a unique challenge in and of itself. While some diamond deposits are still mined using quite primitive methods, most mining operations are highly sophisticated and require a tremendous amount of manpower and machinery to unearth the tiny gems from the volcanic rock that is their home. In fact, an average of 250 tons of rock, sand and Earth is moved, crushed and processed just to produce a single, one-carat polished diamond.

Diamonds were found as early as 800 BC, near Golconda , India , where mining continued until the 1700s. An old drawing shows miners working at some of the alluvial deposits in caves. Buckets carried earth to the surface, while armed guards controlled the shaft entrance. Despite the primitive conditions, the area produced some of the greatest diamonds ever discovered.

As Indian supplies dwindled, Brazil discovered diamonds in 1725, to become an important source, until South Africa ’s massive deposits rewrote the history of diamond mining.

they are from the central area and of the 9 major pipes and some 50 or more minor kimberlite bodies which have been economically mined, all fall within the boundaries of the central area. In the outer area, the kimberlites found so far have been barren of diamonds and in the intermediate area, their content was such as to make mining uneconomic.

he early years of the South African diamond fields began circa 1870, when diamonds were washed along the Vaal River , 700 miles inland from the Cape of Good Hope .

Our journey begins at he Kimberley Mine, also called as the Big Hole, site of the great diamond rush of the 1870s. The first diggers appeared in 1871. They stayed in huts (made of corrugated iron) wagons and tents. By the end of the year the excavations were getting deeper and wooden staging had to be erected to cope with the haulage system. Rope haulage was used to transport equipment and blue ground to and from the claims below. The ropes were attached to windlasses, which were built on tiers so that there would be enough room around the circumference of the mine to accommodate all the ropes. The cables that transported men and materials to and from the mine, resembled a giant spider’s web. The edges of the concessions would collapse and claim-holders were killed.

It was impossible to manage over 600 claims. This set the scene for the claims to be amalgamated – first into several larger companies and ultimately, into a single firm. The mine at Colesberg Kopje (a nine-meter high hill in the vicinity) was one of the earliest sites, which was later incorporated in the De Beers holdings by Cecil Rhodes.

By April 1872, the holes were penetrating deep into the ground. Kimberley was still thought to be an alluvial deposit. Roadways were built, in order to allow men and wheelbarrows to pass. By the end of the year the pits had deepened since diamonds were found in the hard rock beneath the yellow ground. Thousand of miners dug on square claims 31 x 31 feet, which included roadways for the wagons, riggings and bucket pulleys.

In 1873, the diggers evolved a new method of recovery and concessions were worked at different speeds. Claims were concentrated on pipes with diameters of only about 500 feet. The claims were at first limited to squares of 31 feet (9 metres across) and these therefore crossed the pipes all over. The result was an amazing checkerboard architecture.

Figure # 2. Cross Section of the Big Hole.

In this cross section of the Big Hole, one can see that the Blue Ground, from where the diamonds were mined, started at a depth of around 800 metres, below the Vaal River conglomerate.

In 1894, mechanized systems for drilling and underground loading were developed. By the end of 1890s, methods of haulage in the mines had been greatly improved and sophisticated cable systems with trolleys were in use for the transport of men and materials.

Covering an area of 44.8 acres and located 165 km North West of Kimberley, the Finsch is one of De Beers’ seven South African operations. It was discovered by prospectors Finscham and Schwabel in 1960 on the farm Brits in the Postmasburg District, 130 kilometres WNW of Kimberley in the Northern Cape of South Africa. Discovered during exploration for asbestos, the deposit was first developed as an open pit. The Finsch pipe is the most important kimberlite in a cluster that also includes the Peiserton pipe. Located on a precursor dyke set, at surface the pipe measured 17.9 hectares.  This makes it the second largest economically important kimberlite in South Africa after the Premier Mine (now called Cullinan). Since 1991, production has come from the underground mine beneath the old pit.

Finsch is a classic diamondiferous kimberlite pipe, which has a surface expression of around 17.9 hectares. The country rocks consist of banded ironstones overlying dolomites and limestones, the pipe itself consisting of weathered kimberlite (Yellow Ground) to a depth of around 100 metres with unweathered material (Blue Ground) beneath. Reserves at Finsch are sufficient to maintain mining at current rates for a further 27 years. The underground mine is accessed via a spiral decline from surface to the 680 metres level and a 9 metre diameter, 763 metres deep shaft equipped with three automatic Koepe hoists and capable of handling 5 MT / year of ore. Underground development began in 1978 and the shaft was commissioned in 1982.

The upper levels of the underground mine use a sub-level Open Stoping system. The ore and waste is moved from the production levels via vertical ore passes that feed the material to the crushers. The ore is then transported by belt conveyor to the shaft systems for hoisting to the surface. Production currently comes from the Open-Stope blocks 2 and 3 on the 430 metre and 510 metre levels, and a block-caving system in block 4 on the 630 metre level. This will reach full production by 2008, with block 5 following in 2014.

Finsch makes use of specially developed, re-pumpable emulsion explosives, blended from components mixed underground and placed using dedicated transport and charging vehicles. The emulsion is sufficiently viscous to be pumped up 102 mm vertical holes and to remain in position, and is inert until primed during charging. Benefits of this system include reduced carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions after blasting, and reduced explosive usage in fewer holes per ring. Detonation is controlled from the blasting cubicle in the underground production centre, with precise timing achieved by individually programmed microchip detonators.

Semi-automated Tamrock production drill rigs are used in the blasting areas of the Finsch Mine. 12 MT capacity LHD Scooptrams dump broken ore into Finsch’s eight ore passes, each of which has a capacity of 10,000 MT. MMD sizers reduce the kimberlite to – 300 mm for transport to the shafts and hoisting to surface.

In 2001, the Finsch Mine produced 38.4 carats / MT and a total of 1.545658 Million carats of diamonds were recovered.

Located at Koffiefontein, in Southern Free State , South Africa , t his kimberlite pipe was discovered in 1870.  Shortly after, the Jagersfontein pipe was found. Due to the low grade, the Koffiefontein diggings received little attention and were exploited only on a small scale.  The mine closed on several occasions due to economic factors and reopened most recently in 1987. Originally, it measured 10.3 hectares at surface and it is estimated that 1,260 metres of the pipe have been eroded. Koffiefontein is an Underground mine and employs 795 persons. Bench Mining is carried on by De Beers at the Koffiefontein mine. To date, 7.3 million carats have been produced and the largest gem weighed 139 carats.

A method of mining which is partly open-cast and partly underground is carried out at the Premier Mine in the Transvaal , where it was introduced in 1945 when the mine was reopened after it had been shut at the end of open-cast working to a depth of 610 ft (186 metres). The consistently strong side walls of country rock permitted the Open Pit mine to be converted into an underground operation fairly simply. The Premier pipe is elliptical at the mouth, about 2,800 x 1,400 ft (853 x 427 metres) and in the centre of the upper regions is a huge block of quartzite which divides it into two down to over 1,000 ft (305 metres). The block is believed to have fallen into the kimberlite from the side of a hill while the kimberlite was still plastic. In the 1970s work began to remove this floating reef by blasting.

The kimberlite pipe originally measured 32 hectares at surface, making it the largest diamondiferous kimberlite in South Africa .  The pipe has an elongate oval shape which comprises diatreme facies kimberlite to a depth of 550 metres, below which, it grades into the root zone.

In November 2003, De Beers announced that in celebration of the mine's centenary, the mine would usher in the new era with a new name. The Premier mine, as it had been known for the past 100 years became Cullinan Diamond mine. The name change was first announced by the General Manager of Cullinan Diamond mine, Hans Gastrow, as part of the mine’s centenary celebrations. The name change was aimed at recognising the brand that has become associated with Premier mine.

The name of the village of Cullinan had its beginnings in 1903 when it was named after the pioneer and entrepreneur Sir Thomas Cullinan. It later came to the fore again in 1905, when the largest pure rough diamond was discovered and named the Cullinan Diamond. The Cullinan Diamond played a significant role for Premier mine and De Beers when it received global recognition as a gem of the British Crown Jewels. The name change places emphasis on the link of this great Diamond mine with what is now the famous Cullinan brand.

The mine was opened in 1902 and apart from brief closures between 1914 – 1916 and 1932 – 1945, it has consistently been a major diamond producer with a high frequency of finding diamonds larger than ten carats.  The most famous stone found at the mine was the famous 3,106 carat Cullinan Diamond, the largest gem diamond ever found. It was cut to form the 530 carat Great Star of Africa and the 317 carat Lesser Star of Africa set in the Crown Jewels of Britain.

Presently the Cullinan is an Underground mine with 1649 employees.

The Mine is currently investigating the feasibility of extending its operations to below a depth of 1,100 metres from surface.  Plans are well advanced through the Cullinan Cut Project feasibility study to take underground mining to a depth exceeding 1,000 metres, and extend the life of the mine by a quarter century. Projections show that current reserves will be depleted in 2012.  The Centenary Cut will provide a means of replacing these reserves thus extending the life of the Cullinan mine by some 20 to 25 years. On completion, the new facility will have the capacity to produce nine million tons per annum, which is more than double the current four million tons of installed capacity. The Centenary Cut will employ a mechanised block cave as its mining method.  Once sinking operations commence, undercutting will begin about four years later. Full production is expected within seven years. On completion, the project is expected to be an investment in excess of Rand 6 billion.

Another well-known diamondiferous pipe in the region is the Wesselton Mine. The Wesselton mine was the last one to employ Chambering, when it closed its last chambers in 1977.

Debswana is a 50/50 partnership between the Botswana Government and the De Beers group, which is responsible for technology and day-to-day management. It is the world's leading producer of gem diamonds, contributing about 30% of world output by value from four mines.

Orapa – the second largest pipe in the world with a mile-wide crater. Following detailed exploration by De Beers in the 1960s, the mine, located about 240 km west of Francistown , began production in 1971. Located in Botswana , it is spread over an area of 262 acres.

Jwaneng – the second mine in Botswana – is located 120km west of the capital city, Gaborone . It was started in 1981-82. The three kimberlite pipes at Jwaneng intruded shales of the Transvaal Supergroup about 250 million years ago and are older than most kimberlites in southern Africa . Working a seven-day week, the pits are medium-to-very large-scale operations. Bateman semi-mobile crushers are used at Jwaneng. Each machine weighs 1,500 MT and can handle up to 2,400 MT / hectare of kimberlite.

Lethlakane – the third mine of Botswana – situated 50 km from Orapa, started in 1977.

The mines use rotary drills, such as P&H 250XP diesel / hydraulic blasthole drill unit dozers, hydraulic excavators, wheeled loaders and haul trucks ranging from 85 st capacity to 240 st Caterpillar 793C used at Jwaneng. Truck dispatch is by computer-based systems, and Jwaneng has ordered a Gemcom integrated mine production and management system.

In 2002 Jwaneng recovered 13.035 million carats; Orapa 14.3 Mct; Lethlakane 1.03 Mct; and the newly commissioned Damtshaa mine, just over 7,000 ct. Increased output at Orapa and Damtshaa in 2003 raised production to a record 30.2 Mct.

Mbuji-Mayi serves as the capital of Kasai-Oriental province in the south-central Democratic Republic of Congo, formerly known as Zaire . Mbuji-Mayi handles most diamond mining, panning, and production in the Congo . The mine uses a giant excavator working at a capacity of excavating 450 cubic metres of material in an hour. A conveyor belt carries the rough ore from the mine directly to the central recovery plant at Mbuji-Mayi.

Diamonds originated deep in the interior of southern Africa . Over millennia, the Orange River carried them to the Atlantic Ocean where they were deposited on ancient beaches, which in time became part of the mainland. The occurrence of diamonds in this setting is primarily a consequence of the break-up of the ancient super-continent of Gondwanaland, which split to form Africa and South America some 130 million years ago. As the two landmasses moved apart, numerous river systems along the southern African margin drained westward, bringing with them huge quantities of diamond weathered out from kimberlite deposits located in the hinterland hundreds of kilometres to the east.

In 1908, a railway worker stumbled on a shiny treasure that started a major diamond rush. As a result, diamond mining regulations were introduced in 1911 and the Sperrgebiet or “forbidden territory” was declared. In 1920, Sir Ernest Oppenheimer formed Consolidated Diamond Mines of South West Africa (CDM) and, in 1923 it was granted the mining rights for the Sperrgebiet. Oranjemund, a unique town that owes its existence to diamond mining, was established in 1936. It adopted its name from its geographical position at the mouth of the Orange River , the national boundary between the Republics of Namibia and South Africa , and services the Mining Area 1 and Orange River mines.

Pounding surf punctuates the silence of Elizabeth Bay , an abandoned diamond-mining town on Namibia ’s desolate coast. With gems so plentiful that they could be plucked right off the sand, mining camps sprang up along the coast, which was then under German colonial rule. To gain control of the rich diamond deposits, Germany established a Sperrgebiet, or forbidden territory, extending along 200 miles (300 kilometres) of coast and about 60 miles (96 kilometres) inland. Still shown on maps, the forbidden territory is jointly controlled by the Namibian government and the De Beers diamond colossus.

The Skeleton Coast of the Namib Desert truly is a geologist's paradise! The bedrock, consisting of Precambrian gneisses and schists, is overlain by variable thicknesses of sands carried from the Orange River by long shore transport and onshore winds. These spectacular dunes, however, are but a nuisance to the miners, so De Beers maintains the world's largest private earthmoving fleet in order to remove the sand down to bedrock. T he Oranjemund mining operations are one of the largest enterprises of its kind in the world.

The De Beers Namaqualand Mines are situated along a 250 km long stretch of the Atlantic Coast of South Africa. The main mining areas at Namaqualand mines are as follows:

Namaqualand Mines' diamonds are concentrated in alluvial or 'placer' deposits comprising old gravel beaches and river channels. T he highest concentrations of the diamonds are located at the base of these features, at depths of up to 100 metres below surface, although mining has to date only ventured some 40 metres down, since its inception in 1928. De Beers employs 2107 persons for this project.

Foreshore Mining is carried out CDM in South West Africa . The sand overburden is stripped and used to build 40-foot thick walls to keep out the sea, while the diamond-bearing gravels are removed. Work at Oranjemund continues on a day and night basis. The protecting banks are under constant attack by the sea and time is precious. Huge scrapers remove the sand overburden during the beach mining operations. After removal of the sand, the uneven bedrock is then broken up with compressed air drills and shoveled onto conveyor belts set up on the spot.

Working the coastal deposits at Oranjemund requires both manual labour and highly sophisticated modern technology. The gravel and bare bedrock are piled in the background, after removal of the sand over-burden. The final stage is to sweep the bedrock by hand with small brushes. The smallest cracks and holes in the bedrock must be cleared by hand.

All of the diamonds found here are of gem quality, with some 31 million carats having been produced by the turn of the 20th century.

We now shift our focus to the central West African state of Angola . The country has extensive diamond reserves (estimated at 180 million carats), principally in the provinces of Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul in the central and north eastern parts of the country. Several foreign companies have been carrying out exploration programs in Angola . Alluvial Mining of river beds is common. Mobile cranes are used to winch out deep pots containing the diamond-bearing gravel.

We travel east, to the Russian mines of Aikhal, Mir (Peace), Udachnaya (Lucky Strike) and Yubileinaya (Jubilee), located in the province of Sakha (Yakutia). The other mines are Sputnik, Zarnitsa (Lightning), Inter natzionalnaya ( Inter national). The Mir Pipe in Siberia is located just 300 miles south of the Artic Circle . The Russian mines are all open pits, which has the following drawbacks :

The Argyle mine, located in the Kimberley region in the far north east of Western Australia , is the world's largest single producer of diamonds. The mine lies some 550km south west of Darwin by air. The region is remote, rugged and hot, with temperatures of over 40°C during the wet season from October to March. Production began in 1985.

The discovery of the Argyle ore body marked the first time that a commercial diamond occurrence had been identified that is not hosted in Kimberlite. The AK1 pipe at Argyle instead consists of olivine lamproite, from which diamonds had been eroded to form placer deposits nearby. The deposit was discovered in 1979 by the Ashton joint venture, following some 12 years of exploration by various companies in the area. The discovery of alluvial diamonds led directly to their source, the AK1 pipe. Alluvial ores resources are now virtually exhausted and future alluvial working will depend on the outcome of negotiations with local communities. Hard rock reserves are sufficient to support mining at current rates until 2006.

Development of Argyle was a two-stage process. Alluvial diamond mining took place between 1983 and 1985, when the AK1 pipe came into production. Since then, this has been the principal source of ore, supported by lesser amounts of alluvial material.

Argyle operates as a conventional Open Pit Mine, with both lamproite and waste rock being drilled and blasted before being loaded out in a shovel-and-truck operation. The mine operates rotary drill rigs, hydraulic excavators and a fleet of hauling trucks, supported by wheel loaders, bulldozers and other ancillary equipment. The mine operation is monitored and vehicle movements are controlled using Modular Mining Systems' dispatch system, which uses a global positioning system (GPS) for accurate location of drills and other plant.

Since coming into operation, Argyle has produced over 600 Mct of diamonds. This has involved the movement of over 600 MT of material and the treatment of over 200 MT of alluvial and lamproite ore. In 2001, the mine processed 10.3 MT of lamproite ore and 4.2 MT of alluvial ore to recover a total of 26.1 Mct of diamonds. 2002 output was 10.1 MT of lamproite and 2.9 MT of alluvial ore, although diamond production was 33.5 MT, reflecting higher ore grades. While 95% of its output is industrial diamonds, Argyle also produces between 90% and 95% of the world's pink diamonds.

The Ekati Diamond Mine is located in a remote Arctic tundra region near Lac de Gras in the Northwest Territories, approximately 200 km south of the Arctic Circle, approximately 300 km northeast of Yellowknife, capital of the Northwest Territories, and 100 km north of the tree line, in an area of continuous permafrost. It is Canada ’s first surface and underground diamond mine. BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc. is the operator. The Ekati claim block covers 344,000 hectares in the sub-arctic tundra, with the land lease area being 10,960 hectares. There is no year-round road access to the mine site. Access to the Ekati Diamond Mine is by air only. Vehicle traffic is possible only during a 10-week period each year via a winter ice road, allowing for the trucking of bulk supplies to the site. The road stretches about 475 km over frozen lakes and tundra, from Yellowknife to the Ekati Diamond Mine.

The majority of natural diamonds are found in deposits of a rare variety of ultra-basic kimberlite. Geologically speaking, the Lac de Gras kimberlites are similar to those found in South Africa and Russia . However, the Lac de Gras pipes are younger (emplaced approximately 52 million years ago) and are less eroded than the South African and Russian kimberlite pipes. Small, relatively shallow lakes overlie most of the kimberlite pipes scheduled for mining. The lakes vary in depth from 10 m to 30 m. The mine plan is based on multiple pipe development.

Ekati is primarily an open-pit mine with one test underground operation (Koala North). The mine plan envisages mining a number of kimberlite pipes (Panda, Koala, Misery, Fox, Beartooth, Sable and Pigeon), two of which (Panda and Koala) will be later mined by underground methods to allow access to valuable resources that remain below mined out pits. Mining and processing activities are continuous, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.

Well over 90 pieces of surface support equipment are used in mine operations and over 100 diesel pick-up trucks are used on site. That includes mine production equipment from loaders and backhoes to buses and fire trucks. Major mining equipment includes:

Based on known ore reserves, the current project life incorporating the Panda, Koala, Misery, Fox, Sable, Pigeon and Beartooth pipes is 17 years. However, the mine can reasonably be expected to have a life span of 25 years or more as exploration continues to find and test new occurrences.

Diavik Mine , Canada

The Diavik Mine is located 300 km northeast of Yellowknife , Northwest Territories Canada . This remote site, located within the sub-Arctic “barren lands,” is most easily accessed by aircraft and is linked in winter months by a temporary “ice road” to Yellowknife . The mine infrastructure is contained on the 20 sq km East Island , which is located in the eastern end of Lac de Gras. The four project kimberlites, located beneath shallow waters immediately east of the island, will be mined over a twenty-year period. Access to the A154 South and A154 North kimberlites was enabled through the construction of a temporary dike. Similar dikes are planned for the A418 and A21 kimberlites. Sixty-three kimberlite occurrences, approximately 50% of them diamond bearing, have been located on the property. Staged exploration programs are on-going throughout the property.

The Diavik Diamond Mine is expected to have a 20 year life producing more than 6 million carats at its peak.

The quest for Diamonds does not rank high on mankind’s list of worthy or redeeming activities. You’ll find no mention of it in the Boy Scout handbook. And you’ll not see it prescribed by priests as a path towards forgiveness. In the struggle to possess the earth’s booty, far too many a sinner is born and even more falsehoods are fabricated. We cannot look to Diamond Mining for useful sermons. There is no lesson via process, no consolation in the journey. The only reward is the reward itself – to possess, to claim as one’s own. Diamond Mining’s attraction is thus: grasp the purest of the pure, tap God’s current, the power of all creation. Hold the earth’s bounty in one’s own hand … and damn anyone who shall stand in your way.